(NTP) : Aperture Challenge : 2011 [Archive] - AusPhotography:: Australia's Premier Photography Forum::

ricktas

14-01-2011, 7:46am

What better way to start 2011 with a new series of challenges for the AP members learning how to use their cameras. So if you are New To Photography, give these challenges a go, learn to get off Auto Mode, and understand how camera features work, and interact with each other.

This challenge to our members that want to learn to take control of their digital camera is based on the Learning Centre topic : Experimenting with Aperture (http://www.ausphotography.net.au/forum/showlibrary.php?title=New_To_Photography:Experimenting_with_Aperture). You can also use the f-stop guide to understand more : http://www.ausphotography.net.au/forum/showlibrary.php?title=New_To_Photography:f_stop_chart

We would like you to set your camera to Aperture mode (sometimes called A or Av mode). Check your camera manual in need, on how to set your camera to Aperture mode.

THE CHALLENGE: We want you to go out and take two photos of the same subject. One at the largest aperture your lens will allow and one at the smallest. So take one photo at f4.5 (or larger - remember smaller F stop numbers are actually bigger apertures) and one at f22, of the same subject. Post both photos in this thread, with comments about what differences you notice between the two photos , what the effect of aperture had on the shutter speed, and how you could use this difference to make your future photography more creative.

The full New To Photography Learning Centre is in the Ausphotography Library (http://www.ausphotography.net.au/forum/showlibrary.php), under New To Photography (http://www.ausphotography.net.au/forum/showlibrary.php?title=Indexes:New_To_Photography_Book)

Looking forward to seeing your two photos presented for the challenge and your discussions about what you have learnt from the challenge, and how changing the aperture setting can visually affect the resultant photos. Also remember to look at what changing the aperture does to the other camera settings. What happens to the shutter speed, and why does it happen

hawko02

14-01-2011, 9:17pm

http://i1200.photobucket.com/albums/bb330/everdell/nature%20images/nature%20and%20stuff/for%202011/DSC_0847-1.jpg
http://i1200.photobucket.com/albums/bb330/everdell/nature%20images/nature%20and%20stuff/for%202011/DSC_0850.jpg
I used my 18-200 vr lens
first shot F3.5 18mm 1/250s ISO 200 (auto)
sec shot F22 18mm 1/8s ISO 200(auto)
The wider aperture F3.5 has a blurred background and the F22 is in focus. The shutter speed for the F22 was much slower.
When you zoom in on the wider aperture to select a part,the background is blurred and the bit you selected stands out.
Whe you zoom in with the F22 aperture the picture is still in focus with no blurring background. You can also take this picture from a lot further away right up to 200mm and still get focus with the F22 but the F3.5 only works at 18-20mm for me. Unless I am missing something. The F3.5 can be zoomed in later in the photo editing and you still get the blurred background.
I fiddle with all the modes all the time and take the same shot if I can. Probably a slow learning process!! I really appreciate this opportunity to actually have someone explain why. These were just random shots before we headed off and so were in the middle of the day.
Thanks Kathy

Balance

17-01-2011, 7:57pm

My first shot was with a with an F number 36, and an exposure time of 18sec. Hence everything is clearly in focus (including the fence behind). I was taking these pictures in the shade at or near sunset, which is why I am assuming I could have such long exposure time (and obviously with a tripod).

66079

My second shot was with an F number of 5.6 and a exposure time of 1/2 seconds.

66078

It was exciting to see how aperture changed the depth of field. With the wide aperture setting on the subject is clearly in focus and the background is blurred. With the small aperture setting everything is in focus. One day I hope to understand the physics behind this (and for now I just hope I have explained the right way round).

ricktas

17-01-2011, 10:02pm

Balance

18-01-2011, 8:59am

Thanks Rick, now you explain it that makes sense. When you are use to snapping in fully auto, having the camera take 18 sec to take the photo feels very weird - but in a fun way. Can't wait for the next challenge.

Noisysprite

23-01-2011, 11:59pm

rainy day today so setup some random objects from around the house to complete this challenge. Unfortunately I was unable to get open tof 4.5 so settled with f5.6 for the first shot. Second was at the recommended f22.

http://i766.photobucket.com/albums/xx305/Noisysprite/GlassesF56.jpg

http://i766.photobucket.com/albums/xx305/Noisysprite/GlassesF22.jpg

I notice that the circles in the timber are definetly less distinct in the f5.6 sot compared to the F22 one meaning that there is a shallower DOF. This will certainly be useful for shooting where the background is of less interest than the foreground - Portaits for example?

I also note that as I was shooting under artifical light the effect of the brightness in the photos was also affected by the choice of aperture. Even thought the F22 is less open than the f5.6, the camera compensated by the amount of time the lens was opened. It is interesting to see that the f22 shot was actually brighter than the f5.6 shot. Since I work during the day, shooting often takes place late afternoon, the impact of aperture is important to take clear photos in waning light (as I'm finding out!).

Thanks for the challenge Rick, putting what you read into proactice then trying to document your results is an interesting exercise.

ricktas

24-01-2011, 6:38am

Good work everyone. I hope this starts to lead you onto understanding how going from Auto to semi-auto lets you start to control the results from your cameras. Rather than the camera choosing the settings, you can get creative and have an impact on the results of your photos. You are on your way to understanding how to control a camera so that you control the creativity.

Danielle10

24-01-2011, 7:01am

ricktas

24-01-2011, 7:08am

Oh I did mine, just haven't uploaded yet. I was experimenting and it wasn't an overly nice image. Just the plants out the back.

Thanks Rick- looking forward to the next challenge

Sent from my iPhone using Tapatalk

Just the plants out the back, is fine, remember this isn't about getting a competition entry, it is about learning and discovering how your camera works, with you in control!

Bennymiata

25-01-2011, 1:28pm

This is an excellent excercise Rick, and is a trick I use often in product photography.
It gets you to think about how you want the shot to come out, and to realise that the human eye is a such a magnificent lens, far better than any glass lens ever made, in that it can capture a huge depth of field at any time, which your camera can not.
When you look at the subject you want to photograph, think about whether you want the background in focus, or if would look better a bit blurry, or even a lot blurry (excuse my poor English here).
By using the widest aperutre you can (smallest number on your lens), you will only get the object in focus and anything behind it will be blurred quite a bit.
By closing your lens down a bit, say mid-way on your aperture scale, you will get the object and some items behind it in focus, with the background blurred.
Using the smallest opening will more or less, get everything in the shot to be clear and unblurred.

Think about how you want the photo to come out, remembering that a camera does not see things in exactly the same way you do, and adjust your aperture accordingly.

This is why when you see a professional at work, they will often think about the settings on his camera for a little while before he takes the photo - especially those older photographers who are used to using film cameras.

You should all practice this.
Set up your tripod in front of a nice flower for example, with some depth behind it which has some foliage or whatever behind it, then take a shot at the widest opening, then do a few more shots at various other openings until you do one at the narrowest opening of your lens, then plug your camera into your computer and look at the images side by side and see the difference to the DOF (depth of field).
By understanding this you will be able to break free of your fears of using the manual settings on your camera and get you to think about what you are shooting and how you want it to come out.
Let's face it, the only thing you can loose is some pixels!

aurora

25-01-2011, 4:29pm

A mode - f16 at 1/6 sec gives sharp background through fence, whereas f5 at 1/60s gives blur background through fence.

http://i859.photobucket.com/albums/ab159/aurorapb/DoF/Dof_f16_1_6s.jpg
http://i859.photobucket.com/albums/ab159/aurorapb/DoF/f5_1_60s.jpg

PaulJ

25-01-2011, 4:51pm

I used M Mode to control ISO and aperture and adjusted shutter speed to give indicated correct exposure for both shots.

Lens used was a Pentax-F 35-70mm f/3.5-4.5 zoom set at 1:4 "macro" or more accurately close up.

f/4.5 ISO100 1/160 sec
66587

f/22 ISO100 1/8 sec
66588

f/4.5 gives a very narrow DOF - only a very small portion of the flower is in focus.
f/22 gives much wider DOF - it's possible to make out surface texture on the bars behind the flowers and the entire flower is sharp. The f/22 shot seems to be a bit darker overall than the f/4.5 and looks like it needs an extra stop of exposure.

Paul

aurora

26-01-2011, 10:18am

Good work guys. The reason you got such a long exposure relates purely to the aperture. At F36 the lens is 'closed down' so that only a tiny hole exists for the light to enter, thus to get enough light onto the sensor to get a correct exposure, the shutter needs to be open for a longer time.

Thanks for this I have been struggling to understand this concept. I think I need to take lots of shots in various conditions to truly 'get it', eg sunrises etc:crossed:

arj

27-01-2011, 9:52pm

6674766748

Hi everyone,

Here are my two pics, taken in the back garden close to dusk.

The first is at f/1.8, while the other was at f/22.

There are the obvious differences in depth of field - the leaves are blurry in the one with the larger aperture (f1.8), with those at the very bottom of the image the blurriest.

What I noticed most was how noticeably slower the shutter speed was at f/22. It was sufficiently slower for me to actually notice the difference in my hand. I checked the data afterwards, and at f/1.8 the shutter was 1/60 and at at f.22 it was 1/4. Looking at the f/22 image closely, i clearly wasnt able to hold the camera still enough for that longer shutter speed, and the result is its not sharp at all. that tells me that in poorer light, if i want a smaller aperture in order to get greater DOF, i'll probably need to use a tripod (might have to chuff over to the gear forums now for recommendations!)

Lastly ... looking at the data again, I was interested to note that on the f/22 shot, the ISO used by the camera was 3200, compared to 400 at f/1.8. I imagine thats again the result of the camera needing higher ISO to try and make the most of the poor light. thats my guess but perhaps someone with more experience can confirm/explain?

itybitypieces

28-01-2011, 1:40pm

this shot i used the highest aperature i could,being f5.6
http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4097/5394688880_882dacefe3_z.jpg (http://www.flickr.com/photos/brettbickle/5394688880/)
f5.6 (http://www.flickr.com/photos/brettbickle/5394688880/) by 31e63ff63eeff23824220cd93dda29c2 (http://www.flickr.com/people/brettbickle/), on Flickr

the next shot the aperture was at f22
http://farm6.static.flickr.com/5258/5394689020_45025a5971_z.jpg (http://www.flickr.com/photos/brettbickle/5394689020/)
f22 (http://www.flickr.com/photos/brettbickle/5394689020/) by 31e63ff63eeff23824220cd93dda29c2 (http://www.flickr.com/people/brettbickle/), on Flickr

the first shot i took i notice that the amount of area that is in focus is smaller then the amount of in focus area of the second shot .
the shutter speed of the second shot was noticeably longer which was probably compensating for the smaller aperture to be able to get a correct exposure.

arj

28-01-2011, 2:25pm

nice shots itybitypieces.

the second shot (f22) looks a lot "whiter" and brighter to me than the first. eg. look at the colours of the eggs. Can someone explain why?

itybitypieces

28-01-2011, 4:03pm

i went back and had a look at the exif data and thought maybe the iso had changed ,but then i remembered that i locked it to 200.the f5.6 shot shutter speed was 1/10 where as the shutter for the f22 was 1 second.
only thing i thought it was,was available light from the window on the right side had changed from the cloud cover .

ricktas

28-01-2011, 4:18pm

ARJ, you probably have your camera set to auto-ISO, this means the camera will adjust the ISO as well. For this exercise (and in general) turn Auto-ISO off, as you will then see the results of changing apertures more effectively. I suggest an ISO of 100 as a good starting place for general photography.

itybitypieces

28-01-2011, 4:25pm

ricktas. had already put iso in 200 iso as i only have a k100d super and im pretty sure thats its lowest.auto was off for this .

ricktas

28-01-2011, 4:33pm

ricktas. had already put iso in 200 iso as i only have a k100d super and im pretty sure thats its lowest.auto was off for this .

Sorry I was replying to the member above yours (post), who's username is Arj!

ninja em

08-02-2011, 1:14am

aside from the purpose of the exercise, I just love the subject of the two photos from Arj :)

ricktas

08-02-2011, 7:35am

aside from the purpose of the exercise, I just love the subject of the two photos from Arj :)

So how about giving the exercise a go yourself?

cindy82

10-02-2011, 7:39pm

Ok I just did this challenge while sitting here reading this tonight so no fancy pics here. I chucked a few things on the dining room table as I don't have tripod here to stop movement, Also has poor flurescent light aswell but still got the point. The first Pic I took at F4.5. They keys are the focal piont and the only thing in focus. The next F22 and all clear...this second pic took quiet a while to take hence the sitting on the table. I thought i had the ISO set at 100 for both but wouldn't that mean the pics took the same time to take?
I enjoyed the challenge I learnt from it, Thanks!
Woops guess i don't know how to add pics yet:(

cindy82

10-02-2011, 7:46pm

http://i1100.photobucket.com/albums/g401/cindyeveringham/Aus%20photography/IMG_1866.jpg

http://i1100.photobucket.com/albums/g401/cindyeveringham/Aus%20photography/IMG_1865.jpg
There we Go!!

photoexplorer

11-02-2011, 4:25pm

Does anyone know why I would only have two f setting f6.4 and f3.1, as I own a Fujifilm s1800?

ricktas

11-02-2011, 5:15pm

Does anyone know why I would only have two f setting f6.4 and f3.1, as I own a Fujifilm s1800?

Some cameras really limit your ability to choose settings. I would have to look into this further and see what I can find out for you.

ricktas

11-02-2011, 5:18pm

According to your manual - page 40 you can set apertures. See page 43 of your manual for more information. If you get stuck ask again here.

ElizabethAtkinson

12-02-2011, 11:40am

Can someone please tell me what I am doing wrong - I have tried numerous times to take photos, of different subjects outside, changing the aperature from f3. to f22 and they are all turning out very dark; yeet when I take the same photo using the automatic option it works beautifully? I have a Nikon D60 with kit lens 18-55mmm.

ElizabethAtkinson

12-02-2011, 12:29pm

Just want to say the same thing happened when I tried to change the ISO, for the ISO challenge.

jtp22

12-02-2011, 3:16pm

f22 ISO 100 6sec
http://i1200.photobucket.com/albums/bb324/jtp2203/NtpAp-Ch2.jpg
f2.8 ISO 100 1/13sec
http://i1200.photobucket.com/albums/bb324/jtp2203/NtpAp-Ch1.jpg
Here are my two photos. enjoy. :D

What i noticed was
smaller f stop = longer exposure = greater DOF
larger f stop = shorter exposure = shallow DOF

btw Love these challenges!:th3:

Kaktus

12-02-2011, 6:45pm

What i noticed was
smaller f stop = longer exposure = greater DOF
larger f stop = shorter exposure = shallow DOF

btw Love these challenges!:th3:

I'm confused now :o , shouldn't it be the other way around e.g. larger f number = longer exposure = greater DoF
and smaller f number = shorter exposure = shallow DoF :confused013

William

13-02-2011, 11:31am

I'm confused now :o , shouldn't it be the other way around e.g. larger f number = longer exposure = greater DoF
and smaller f number = shorter exposure = shallow DoF :confused013

f22 is a small hole and will give you greater DOF

f4 is a big hole and will give you what is call a Shallower DOF

When I say , Hole thats the size the Aperture blades make at that setting

Usually you use (As an example) f4 for Portraits , So you blur the Background (Shallow) with a nice Bokeh to highlight the subject

Landscapes you go for greater DOF and use (Example) f8 upwards to f22

Hope thats not to confusing - Bill :)

Kaktus

13-02-2011, 1:19pm

... Hope thats not to confusing - Bill :)

Thank you for explaining :)

I think I'm confusing myself with not being able to understand the 'terminology'. :confused013
My thinking was that: smaller f stop means a smaller number e.g. f2.8 = a large 'hole' or aperture opening
and larger f stop means a larger number e.g. f22 = a small 'hole' or aperture opening.:eek:

So, if I understand your explanation correctly then the term f stop actually describes the size of the 'hole' i.e. aperture opening and not the f number. :crossed:

William

13-02-2011, 2:14pm

Yep , I think you've got it , If you want to highlight a particular subject and take out any other distractions use a smaller f stop number f2.8

If you want the whole scene in Focus , Go to a higher f stop f10 to f22 , eg , Landscapes/Seascapes , Funny I used to go to a beginners photography class and even there , Understanding the f stop was the hardest thing for people to get their heads around :th3:- Cheers Bill

macrocephalic

14-02-2011, 5:00pm

nice shots itybitypieces.

the second shot (f22) looks a lot "whiter" and brighter to me than the first. eg. look at the colours of the eggs. Can someone explain why?

Part of the reason (but not the whole reason in this photo) is vignetting. When the aperture is really wide (small f stop) you get darkening around the edges of the pictures (varying depending on the lens and sensor size) called vignetting. This is because when the aperture is small (high f stop) only the light from the centre of the lens makes it through to the sensor. When the aperture is large (low f stop) the light from the whole of the front of the lens is going into the sensor - but the edges of the barrel get in the way a bit and cause shadows (can't think of a better way to describe it). If you stack too many filters and shoot with wide open aperture then the vignetting gets worse, because the edges of the filters are making the shadows worse.

ElizabethAtkinson

15-02-2011, 6:19pm

I found the problem. It appears when I changed the aperature reading I also changed the exposure compensation which was making the photos very dark.
Here is the photo taken at f4.5
67879

Here is the photo taken at f29
67880
Apart from some slight changes in DOF, not so clear I really can't see a significant change??

aurora

18-02-2011, 8:37am

[/QUOTE]Apart from some slight changes in DOF, not so clear I really can't see a significant change??[/QUOTE]

I'm still getting my head around this too, but I think when you use f29 you might find camera shake as the shutter stays open longer to adjust for light so check your exif data to see if shutter speed changed in relations to change in f setting, cause when you change your f your shutter will decide on the best setting.
I have to add I am still learning this but feel that I'm getting there. Can someone with more experience confirm.

daggert

19-02-2011, 1:48pm

What I noticed about this was that sometimes the camera would go higher than 22 or not as low as 3.5 depending on the image or lighting. At first I was playing with the exposure compensation but then I realised and set that to 0 again. With the 22 shot I cant see any bird in complete focus but all are way more defined in this. Using the 4.5(the camera wouldnt go to 3.5 which it did on some outside shots) the first owl is the focus. Both were taken with ISO 100.
f 22
http://i287.photobucket.com/albums/ll156/daggertowner/IMG_8597.jpg

f 4.5
http://i287.photobucket.com/albums/ll156/daggertowner/IMG_8598.jpg

daggert

19-02-2011, 1:53pm

I mainly focus on birds and flowers with my photgraphy. From my limited concept of this stuff if I wanted to take a close up of a flower then I should go with a bigger aperture to capture the whole flower and do away with the blurred egdes of the petals?

itybitypieces

19-02-2011, 4:06pm

and when you took these two photos what did you notice with the shutter speed

daggert

20-02-2011, 10:41am

The f22 was slower. It was one while the 4.5 was 1 / 25 which I assume means one 25th of a second. Is that right?

itybitypieces

21-02-2011, 4:52pm

1 / 25 which I assume means one 25th of a second. Is that right?

yep

macrocephalic

01-03-2011, 12:46pm

Thank you for explaining :)

I think I'm confusing myself with not being able to understand the 'terminology'. :confused013
My thinking was that: smaller f stop means a smaller number e.g. f2.8 = a large 'hole' or aperture opening
and larger f stop means a larger number e.g. f22 = a small 'hole' or aperture opening.:eek:

So, if I understand your explanation correctly then the term f stop actually describes the size of the 'hole' i.e. aperture opening and not the f number. :crossed:

Aperture numbers are actually fractions - but people tend to leave off the numerator. So an f2.8 is actually an f1/2.8, and f22 is actually f1/22. If you remember this then it makes more sense that f2.8 is a bigger hole than f22 - because one 2.8th is much bigger than one 22th. Sometimes you will see f numbers written as fractions or ratios, eg f1:2.8

jbainesy

02-03-2011, 10:27am

AAAAAAH!!!!!
They're FRACTIONS!!!!

That makes SOOOOO much more sense to me now!
I REALLY wanted to kill the guy who decided that "2.8 was a bigger hole than 22"... it confused the hell out of me always thinking "now.... with F-stops I have to think backwards, right? hang on....."

But NOW I'm just going to think of the F as a fraction, 1/2.8 or 1/22... which is smaller? 1/22 - so that's the smaller apeture!

It's probably elsewhere on the forums, but this is a GREAT thread to bring up that point - thanks macrocephalic :th3:

cfm

07-03-2011, 9:58am

Yes, I had a blinding flash of learning when I recently went through the New To Photography section on this website, and realised the F-stop is the RATIO between the full lens diameter and the aperture diameter (how big is the opening of the aperture 'leaves'). For some reason that had never 'clicked' in my head.

Also, I think it partly explains why low F-stop lenses are more expensive, as they require the aperture to be very open. So the lens glass needs to be super-accurate, and the leaves of the aperture need to be able to open up very wide. Tricky design, I dare say.

Noema

07-03-2011, 9:41pm

6901269013
SPINY LEAF INSECT
I took this photos with my Nikon D90, using the Tamron Macro 90mm lens. The first image was taken with an aperture of 3.5 and the second image 40.
I really liked this challenge, I have learnt something new today!

ElizabethAtkinson

08-03-2011, 6:57am

Love your photo - I'm off to google your Tamron lens now to see the price of it.

ricktas

08-03-2011, 7:10am

Great work everyone. Hope you have learnt from this challenge and it allows your photography to improve along with your knowledge. Keep practising and the more you do, the more you will understand about how cameras work. Another challenge will be coming soon.

Noema

08-03-2011, 6:22pm

Hi Artylady,
Thank you for your comment. * removed. members with under 30 days membership and 50 posts cannot discuss, promote commercial companies on AP *
I am very happy with the lens so far, however, I initially wanted to buy the Nikon AF-S VR Micro-Nikkor 105mm f/2.8G IF-ED Lens, which is reviewed as a much better lens. The reason why I went with the Tamron is because my budget is limited, and of course the Nikon lens is a lot more expensive.
Good luck with your lens hunting.
Noema

Briar

03-05-2011, 3:35pm

I decided the stick with the theme of 'just the plants out the back' to start with.
I used my 18-55mmVR kit lens

1st photo f/22, 1/60
http://farm6.static.flickr.com/5106/5682351123_66c8f15e6b.jpg

The smaller aperture produced a greater depth of field, with most of the shot in focus. Shutter speed was slower - obviously to let more light in.

2nd photo f/5.6, 1/1000
http://farm6.static.flickr.com/5185/5682347231_a0562f2c1e.jpg

The larger aperture created a shallower depth of field, with the flowers in the foreground in focus, but the background out of focus. Shutter speed was faster - to let in less light and not overexpose the image?
I also experimented with taking some photos inside and noticed that at the same apertures, the shutter speeds were slower. I'm assuming this was to do with the low lighting indoors, therefore shutter opens for longer to compensate for low light? I guess this could be changed by adding flash or adjusting the ISO, and if so then would this then make the shutter speed faster?
Also, I was wondering why my lens says f/3.5-5.6 but the lowest aperture I could set it to was 5.6?

ricktas

03-05-2011, 6:54pm

Good photos there Briar, they have hopefully taught you how to use aperture to creatively change the results of future photos. Understanding which aperture blurs the background, gives you a starting point to getting some great portraits.

Also, I was wondering why my lens says f/3.5-5.6 but the lowest aperture I could set it to was 5.6?

Your lens is an 18-55 f3.5 - f5.6. What this means is that at 18mm the largest aperture you can use is f3.5 and at 55mm the largest is f5.6. In between those, say at 30mm you might find f4.5 is the limit. Hope that help you understand the nomenclature and how it relates to your lens

Dizzle

19-05-2011, 9:58pm

Ok here is my effort. I was having a bit of a play with my new Sigma 17-70 and taking really random pics. These photos of the creek behind my house showed up the big difference when the aperture is changed. Great seeing these results to help me learn.

f4
http://farm6.static.flickr.com/5106/5736697268_c70f66a3a9_z.jpg (http://www.flickr.com/photos/williamsa3/5736697268/)

f32
http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2663/5736147329_535cf095df_z.jpg (http://www.flickr.com/photos/williamsa3/5736147329/)

I see the exposure slow down as the aperture gets smaller, I assume it's trying to get more light in. Great lessons!

EDIT: Standby, can't get the attachments to work haha!

EDIT: Thanks ricktas!

ricktas

19-05-2011, 10:04pm

Ok here is my effort. I was having a bit of a play with my new Sigma 17-70 and taking really random pics. These photos of the creek behind my house showed up the big difference when the aperture is changed. Great seeing these results to help me learn.

f4
http://www.flickr.com/photos/williamsa3/5736697268/

f32
http://www.flickr.com/photos/williamsa3/5736147329/

I see the exposure slow down as the aperture gets smaller, I assume it's trying to get more light in. Great lessons!

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